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SARS Coronavirus is an enveloped virus containing three outer structural proteins, namely the membrane (M), envelope (E), and spike (S) proteins. Spike (S)-glycoprotein of the virus interacts with a cellular receptor and mediates membrane fusion to allow viral entry into susceptible target cells. Accordingly, S-protein plays an important role in virus infection cycle and is the primary target of neutralizing antibodies.

Forty-two antigenic domains were identified across the hepatitis A virus (HAV) polyprotein by using a set of 237 overlapping 20-mer synthetic peptides spanning the entire HAV polyprotein. Nineteen antigenic domains were found within the structural proteins, and 22 were found within the nonstructural proteins, with 1 domain spanning the junction of VP1 and P2A proteins. Five of these domains were considered immunodominant, as judged by both the breadth and the strength of their immunoreactivity. One domain is located within the VP2 protein at position 57-90 aa. A second domain, located at position 767-842 aa, contains the C-terminal part of the VP1 protein and the entire P2A protein. A third domain, located at position 1403-1456 aa, comprises the C-terminal part of the P2C protein and the N-terminal half of the P3A protein. The fourth domain, located at position 1500-1519 aa, includes almost the entire P3B, and the last domain, located at position 1719-1764 aa, contains the C-terminal region of the P3C protein and the N-terminal region of the P3D protein. Four of the five most immunoreactive domains are derived from small HAV proteins and/or encompass protein cleavage sites separating different HAV proteins.

CD5 is a suitable immunohistochemical marker for T-cells, though not as sensitive as CD3. Approximately 76% of T-cell neoplasms are reported to express CD5, and it is also observed in chronic lymphocytic leukemia, hairy cell leukemia, and mantle cell lymphoma cells. CD5 is commonly lost in cutaneous T-cell lymphoma, and its deficiency can be used as an indicator of malignancy in this condition. CD5’s absence in T cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, though relatively rare, is linked with a poor prognosis. CD5 serves as a receptor in regulating T-cell proliferation.

African swine fever virus (ASFV) causes African swine fever (ASF), a disease of swine characterized by high morbidity and mortality. ASFV is a large DNA virus which belongs to Asfarviridae family. ASFV’s multilayered virion consists from up to 54 polypeptides while p30 is one of the early viral proteins. ASFV P30 is encoded by the CP204L gene and is one of the most antigenic structural proteinsi nvolved in ASFV entry.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirusthat can lead to a condition in which the immune systembegins to fail, leading to opportunistic infections. HIV primarily infects vital cells in the humanimmune systemsuch as helper T cells(specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophagesand dendritic cells. HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through three main mechanisms: firstly, direct viral killing of infected cells; secondly, increased rates of apoptosisin infected cells; and thirdly, killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytesthat recognize infected cells. When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunityis lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections. HIV was classified as a member of the genus Lentivirus, part of the family of Retroviridae. Lentiviruses have many common morphologies and biological properties. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period. Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA viruses. Upon entry of the target cell, the viral RNA genomeis converted to double-stranded DNAby a virally encoded reverse transcriptasethat is present in the virus particle. This viral DNA is then integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded integraseso that the genome can be transcribed. Once the virus has infected the cell, two pathways are possible: either the virus becomes latentand the infected cell continues to function, or the virus becomes active and replicates, and a large number of virus particles are liberated that can then infect other cells.

SARS Coronavirus is an enveloped virus containing three outer structural proteins, namely the membrane (M), envelope (E), and spike (S) proteins. Spike (S)-glycoprotein of the virus interacts with a cellular receptor and mediates membrane fusion to allow viral entry into susceptible target cells. Accordingly, S-protein plays an important role in virus infection cycle and is the primary target of neutralizing antibodies.

HCV is a small 50nm, enveloped, single-stranded, positive sense RNAvirus in the family Flaviviridae.
HCV has a high rate of replication with approximately one trillion particles produced each day in an infected individual. Due to lack of proofreading by the HCV RNA polymerase, the HCV has an exceptionally high mutation rate, a factor that may help it elude the host's immune response. Hepatitis C virus is classified into six genotypes(1-6) with several subtypes within each genotype. The preponderance and distribution of HCV genotypes varies globally. Genotype is clinically important in determining potential response to interferon-based therapy and the required duration of such therapy. Genotypes 1 and 4 are less responsive to interferon-based treatment than are the other genotypes (2, 3, 5 and 6).

Human T-lymphotropic virus (HTLV) is a human, single-stranded RNA retrovirus that causes
T-cell leukemia and T-cell lymphoma. The virus activates a subset of T-helper cellscalled Th1cells. The result is a proliferation of Th1 cells and overproduction of Th1 related cytokines (mainly IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha). Feedback mechanisms of these cytokines cause a suppression of the Th2 lymphocytes and a reduction of Th2 cytokine production (mainly
IL-4, IL-5, IL-10 and IL-13). The end result is a reduction in the ability of the infected host to mount an adequate immune response to invading organisms that require a predominantly
Th2 dependant response (these include parasitic infections and production of mucosal and humoral antibodies).
HTLV-1 p24 is usually used for clinical diagnosis and forms both monomer and dimer on
SDS-PAGE gel but the majority of protein is a dimer.

HIV-1 Nef is anessential factor for efficient viral replication and pathogenesis and therefore is produced shortly after virus infection. HIV-1 Nef is also facilitates virus replication and enhances virions infectivity. Nef exerts pleiotropic effects: decreases cell surface CD4 antigen by interacting with the Src family kinase LCK, down-modulates surface MHC-I molecules and protects the infected cell from apoptosis in order to keep it alive until the next virus generation is mature. Nef protein bypasses host T-cell signaling byinducing a trascriptional program almost identical to that of anti-CD3 cell activation.

VZV is closely related to the herpes simplex viruses(HSV), sharing much genomehomology. The known envelope glycoproteins (gB, gC, gE, gH, gI, gK, gL) correspond with those in HSV, however there is no equivalent of HSV gD. VZV virons are spherical and 150-200 nm in diameter. Their lipidenvelope encloses the nucleocapsid of 162 capsomeres arranged in a hexagonalform. Its DNAis a single, linear, double-stranded molecule, 125,000 nt long. The virus is very susceptible to disinfectants, notably sodium hypochlorite. Within the body it can be treated by a number of drugs and therapeutic agents including aciclovir, zoster-immune globulin(ZIG), and vidarabine.

CD37 belongs to the transmembrane 4 superfamily, otherwise known as the tetraspanin family. Most of its members are cell-surface proteins which are distinguished by the presence of 4 hydrophobic domains. These proteins mediate signal transduction events which have a role in the regulation of cell development, activation, growth and motility. CD37 protein is a cell surface glycoprotein which is known to form complexes with integrins and other transmembrane 4 superfamily proteins. CD37 may also havea role in T-cell-B-cell interactions.

VZV is closely related to the herpes simplex viruses(HSV), sharing much genomehomology. The known envelope glycoproteins (gB, gC, gE, gH, gI, gK, gL) correspond with those in HSV, however there is no equivalent of HSV gD. VZV virons are spherical and 150-200 nm in diameter. Their lipidenvelope encloses the nucleocapsid of 162 capsomeres arranged in a hexagonalform. Its DNAis a single, linear, double-stranded molecule, 125,000 nt long. The virus is very susceptible to disinfectants, notably sodium hypochlorite. Within the body it can be treated by a number of drugs and therapeutic agents including aciclovir, zoster-immune globulin(ZIG), and vidarabine.

A human infecting coronavirus (viral pneumonia) called 2019 novel coronavirus, 2019-nCoV was found in the fish market at the city of Wuhan, Hubei province of China on December 2019.

The 2019-nCoV shares an 87% identity to the 2 bat-derived severe acute respiratory syndrome 2018 SARS-CoV-2 located in Zhoushan of eastern China. 2019-nCoV has an analogous receptor-BD-structure to that of 2018 SARS-CoV, even though there is a.a. diversity so thus the 2019-nCoV might bind to ACE2 receptor protein (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) in humans.

While bats are possibly the host of 2019-nCoV, researchers suspect that animal from the ocean sold at the seafood market was an intermediate host. RSCU analysis proposes that the 2019-nCoV is a recombinant within the viral spike glycoprotein between the bat coronavirus and an unknown coronavirus.

Entry of HSV into the host cell involves interactions of several viral glycoproteins with cell surface receptors. The virus particle is covered by an envelope which, when bound to specific receptors on the cell surface, will fuse with the cell membrane and create an opening, or pore, through which the virus enters the host cell. The sequential stages of HSV entry are analagous to those of other viruses. At first, complementary receptors on the virus and cell surface bring the two membranes into proximity. In an intermediate state, the two membranes begin to merge, forming a hemifusion state. Finally, a stable entry pore is formed through which the viral envelope contents are introduced to the host cell.

H1N1 is a subtype specie of Influenza A virus. H1N1 Influenza Virus has mutated into various strains such as the Spanish Flu strain, mild human flu strains, endemic pigstrains, and various strains found in birds. The Influenza A Virus is a globular particle about 100nm in diameter, sheathed in a lipid bilayer derived from the plasma membrane of its host. Studded in the lipid bilayer are two integral membrane proteins some 500 molecules of hemagglutinin ("H") and some 100 molecules of neuraminidase ("N"). Within the lipid bilayer are 3000 molecules of matrix protein and 8 pieces of RNA. Each of the 8 RNA molecules is associated with many copies of a nucleoprotein, several molecules of the three subunits of its RNA polymerase some "non-structural" protein molecules of uncertain function.

SARS Coronavirus is an enveloped virus containing three outer structural proteins, namely the membrane (M), envelope (E), and spike (S) proteins. Spike (S)-glycoprotein of the virus interacts with a cellular receptor and mediates membrane fusion to allow viral entry into susceptible target cells. Accordingly, S-protein plays an important role in virus infection cycle and is the primary target of neutralizing antibodies.

Human coronavirus 229E is a single-stranded, positive-sense, RNA virus species in the Alphacoronavirus genus of the subfamily Coronavirinae, in the family Coronaviridae, of the order Nidovirales. There are four globally distributed known human coronaviruses - HCoV-229E, HCoV-HKU1, HC0V-NL63 and HCoV-OC43, which are found in different locations around the world at different times of the year. Coronavirus 229E and Human coronavirus OC43 are known to be the cause for the common cold. HCoV-229E is related to large range of respiratory symptoms, from the common cold to high-morbidity diseases such as pneumonia and bronchiolitis. Additionally, between the Coronaviruses, HCoV-229E is the most frequently co-detected with other respiratory viruses, mainly with HRSV (Human respiratory syncytial virus).

Human coronavirus NL63 also known as HCoV-NL63 is a type of coronavirus that was identified in 2004. Among the associated diseases are mild to moderate upper respiratory tract infections, bronchiolitis, severe lower respiratory tract infection and croup. Coronavirus NL63 appears mainly in young children, the elderly and immunocompromised patients with acute respiratory illness. Coronavirus NL63 has a seasonal association in temperate climates. Coronavirus NL63 is not an emerging virus, but rather one that continually circulates the human population. Transmission of HCoV-NL63 is likely through droplet expulsion from the respiratory tract, which may be cottages when close personal contact occurs. Coronavirus NL63 is able to endure for up to7 days in respiratory secretions and remains infective at room temperature. Once the virus has entered the host it binds to cellular receptors using spike proteins, similar to those found in HIV-1. Coronavirus NL63 is able to use Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) as an entry receptor to target cells. Since coronavirus NL63 is a positive single-stranded RNA virus, the processes of replication via transcription and translation can be carried out in the cytoplasm of the infected cell.

CD8B encodes the CD8 beta chain isoforms of the CD8 antigen. CD8 is a cell surface glycoprotein which facilitates efficient cell-cell interactions within the immune system and is located on most cytotoxic T lymphocytes. The T-cell receptor on the T lymphocyte and the co-receptor CD8 antigen identify antigens exposed by an antigen presenting cell (APC) in the context of class I MHC molecules. The functional co-receptor is either a heterodimer composed of one alpha and one beta chain or a homodimer composed of two alpha chains. Both alpha and beta chains share substantial homology to immunoglobulin variable light chains.

HSA is synthesized in the liver as preproalbumin which has an N-terminal peptide that is removed before the nascent protein is released from the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The product, proalbumin, is in turn cleaved in the Golgi vesicles to produce the secreted HSA. HSA is a soluble, monomeric protein which comprises about one-half of the blood serum protein. HSA functions primarily as a carrier protein for steroids, fatty acids, and thyroid hormones and plays a role in stabilizing extracellular fluid volume. Mutations in this gene on chromosome 4 result in various anomalous proteins. HSA is a globular unglycosylated serum protein of molecular weight 65,000. The human HSA gene is 16,961 nucleotides long from the putative 'cap' site to the first poly (A) addition site. It is split into 15 exons which are symmetrically placed within the 3 domains that are thought to have arisen by triplication of a single primordial domain.
HSA is widely used to stabilize blood volume generally from donors but the fear of contamination such as HIV & Hepatitis has enticed great interest in the recombinant form which is identical to the natural blood.
Suitable for use in biochemical, excipient (an inert substance used as a diluent or vehicle for a drug), culture media and chromatographic applications.

CD99, or MIC2 gene product, or E2 antigen is expressed on the cell membrane of some lymphocytes, cortical thymocytes, and granulosa cells of the ovary. The antigen is also expressed by most pancreatic islet cells, Sertoli cells of the testis, and some endothelial cells. Mature granulocytes express very little or no CD99. MIC2 is strongly expressed on Ewing’s sarcoma cells and primitive peripheral neuroectodermal tumors.

CD57 also called B3GAT1is part of the glucuronyltransferase gene family. CD57 exhibits strict acceptor specificity, recognizing nonreducing terminal sugars and their anomeric linkages. CD57 takes part in the glucuronyl transfer reaction during the biosynthesis of the carbohydrate epitope HNK-1.

Hepatitis B is one of a few known non-retroviralviruses which employ reverse transcriptionas a part of its replication process. (HIV, a completely unrelated virus, also uses reverse transcription, but it is a retrovirus.) HBV invades the cell by binding to surface receptor and become internalized. The viral core particles then migrate to the hepatocyte nucleus and the partially double-stranded, relaxed circular genomes (RC-DNA) are repaired to form a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA), which is the template for viral genomic and sub-genomic RNAs by cellular RNA polymerase II. Of these, the pregenomic RNA (pgRNA is selectively packaged into progeny capsids and is then reverse-transcribed into new RC-DNA. The core can either bud into the endoplasmic reticulum to be enveloped or exported from the cell or recycled back into the genome for conversion to cccDNA.

Human norovirus is classified into two groups, group 1& group 2. Norwalk virus is the species which belongs to group 1 and was discovered in 1968 at Ohio. Norovirus is a familiar virus which causes human gastroenteritis with the following symptoms vomiting, diarrhea and sickness. CDC report revealed that there are 19-21 million Americans infected by Nororvirus annually with 800 deaths, 1 in 15 people with infection. Around the world, this virus affects about 267 million people and causes over 200,000 deaths each year; these losses are mostly in less developed countries and in the very young, elderly and immuno-suppressed population, though, most cases are self-limited with a full recovery within just a few days. Norovirus is extremely contagious and can spread from human to human through infected food, water or contaminated surfaces. The outbreaks usually occur from November-April, while the peak is in January. Norovirus is a positive sense RNA virus with 7.5 kb nucleotides, encoding a major structural protein VP1 with 50-55kDa. The full length of VP1 capsid comprises the internal N-terminal, Hinge, shell (S) and protruding (P) domains. P domain from 225 to 520 forms P1- P2-P1 structure. Moreover, P domain has a receptor binding region which recognizes human histo-blood group antigens (HBGAs). P domain expressed in bacteria can spontaneously form a P dime as well as a P particle aggregated by 12 P dimmers. P particle displays an increased binding activity to HBGAs higher than virus-like particle (VLP) formed by the full-length capsid. For norovirus vaccine development, we consider P domain as a good candidate.