Search results

TOR1A which is a member of the AAA family of adenosine triphosphatases (ATPases) is associated to the Clp protease/heat shock family and is expressed highly in the substantia nigra pars compacta.TOR1A functions as a molecular chaperone assisting in the suitable folding of secreted and/or membrane proteins. Mutations in TOR1A result in the autosomal dominant disorder, torsion dystonia one.

PTB domain-containing engulfment adapter protein 1 (GULP1) is an evolutionarily conserved adaptor protein essential for efficient phagocytosis of apoptotic cells by phagocytes. Furthermore, GULP1 helps modulate cellular glycosphingolipid and cholesterol transport. In addition, GULP1 may have a role in the internalization and endosomal trafficking of various LRP1 ligands, such as PSAP. Increased cytoplasmic levels of GULP1 are linked with increases in cellular levels of GTP-bound ARF6.

HCV is a small 50nm, enveloped, single-stranded, positive sense RNAvirus in the family Flaviviridae.
HCV has a high rate of replication with approximately one trillion particles produced each day in an infected individual. Due to lack of proofreading by the HCV RNA polymerase, the HCV has an exceptionally high mutation rate, a factor that may help it elude the host's immune response. Hepatitis C virus is classified into six genotypes(1-6) with several subtypes within each genotype. The preponderance and distribution of HCV genotypes varies globally. Genotype is clinically important in determining potential response to interferon-based therapy and the required duration of such therapy. Genotypes 1 and 4 are less responsive to interferon-based treatment than are the other genotypes (2, 3, 5 and 6).

HIV-1 and HIV-2 appear to package their RNA differently. HIV-1 binds to any appropriate RNA whereas HIV-2 preferentially binds to mRNA which creates the Gag protein itself. This means that HIV-1 is better able to mutate. HIV-2 is transmitted in the same ways as HIV-1: Through exposure to bodily fluids such as blood, semen, tears and vaginal fluids.
Immunodeficiency develops more slowly with HIV-2.
HIV-2 is less infectious in the early stages of the virus than with HIV-1.
The infectiousness of HIV-2 increases as the virus progresses.
Major differences include reduced pathogenicity of HIV-2 relative to HIV-1, enhanced immune control of HIV-2 infection and often some degree of CD4-independence. Despite considerable sequence and phenotypic differences between HIV-1 and 2 envelopes, structurally they are quite similar. Both membrane-anchored proteins eventually form the 6-helix bundles from the N-terminal and C-terminal regions of the ectodomain, which is common to many viral and cellular fusion proteins and which seems to drive fusion.
HIV-1 gp41 helical regions can form more stable 6-helix bundles than HIV-2 gp41 helical regions however HIV-2 fusion occurs at a lower threshold temperature (25°C), does not require Ca2+ in the medium, is insensitive to treatment of target cells with cytochalasin B, and is not affected by target membrane glycosphingolipid composition.

Entry of HSV into the host cell involves interactions of several viral glycoproteins with cell surface receptors. The virus particle is covered by an envelope which, when bound to specific receptors on the cell surface, will fuse with the cell membrane and create an opening, or pore, through which the virus enters the host cell. The sequential stages of HSV entry are analagous to those of other viruses. At first, complementary receptors on the virus and cell surface bring the two membranes into proximity. In an intermediate state, the two membranes begin to merge, forming a hemifusion state. Finally, a stable entry pore is formed through which the viral envelope contents are introduced to the host cell.

The B19 virus, usually referred to as parvovirus B19 or sometimes as erythrovirus B19, belongs to the family of parvoviruses, genus erythrovirus. B19 virus causes a childhood rash named “fifth disease” or “erythema infectiosum” which is ordinarily known as “slapped cheek syndrome”. Erythroviruses are members of the Parvoviridae family of small DNA viruses. The B19 virus is a non-enveloped, icosahedral virus which contains a single-stranded linear DNA genome. Parvovirus B19 is classified as erythrovirus because of its capability to invade red blood cell precursors in the bone marrow. This virus is mainly spread by infected respiratory droplets; though, blood-borne transmission has also been reported.

Treponema pallidum is a gram-negative spirochaete bacterium and is considered to be metabolically crippled. There are at least four known subspecies: T. pallidum pallidum, T. pallidum pertenue, T. pallidum carateum and T. pallidum endemicum. The helical structure of T. pallidum pallidum allows it to move in a corkscrew motion through viscous mediums such as mucus. Treponema pallidum sub sp. pallidum has one of the smallest bacterial genomes at 1.14 million base pairs (Mb) and has limited metabolic capabilities, reflecting its adaptation through genome reduction to the rich environment of mammalian tissue.

Chlamydia is a common term for infection with any bacterium belonging to the phylum Chlamydiae. This term derives from the name of the bacterial genus Chlamydiain the family Chlamydiaceae, order Chlamydiales, class and phylum Chlamydiae. There are two genera in Chlamydiaceae: Chlamydia and Chlamydophila. The genus Chlamydia includes three species: C. trachomatis, C. muridarum, and C. suis.

Forty-two antigenic domains were identified across the hepatitis A virus (HAV) polyprotein by using a set of 237 overlapping 20-mer synthetic peptides spanning the entire HAV polyprotein. Nineteen antigenic domains were found within the structural proteins, and 22 were found within the nonstructural proteins, with 1 domain spanning the junction of VP1 and P2A proteins. Five of these domains were considered immunodominant, as judged by both the breadth and the strength of their immunoreactivity. One domain is located within the VP2 protein at position 57-90 aa. A second domain, located at position 767-842 aa, contains the C-terminal part of the VP1 protein and the entire P2A protein. A third domain, located at position 1403-1456 a.a, comprises the C-terminal part of the P2C protein and the N-terminal half of the P3A protein. The fourth domain, located at position 1500-1519 a.a, includes almost the entire P3B, and the last domain, located at position 1719-1764 aa, contains the C-terminal region of the P3C protein and the N-terminal region of the P3D protein. Four of the five most immunoreactive domains are derived from small HAV proteins and/or encompass protein cleavage sites separating different HAV proteins.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that can lead to a condition in which the immune system begins to fail, leading to opportunistic infections. HIV primarily infects vital cells in the human immune system such as helper T cells (specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophage sand dendritic cells. HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through three main mechanisms: firstly, direct viral killing of infected cells; secondly, increased rates of apoptosis in infected cells; and thirdly, killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytes that recognize infected cells. When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunity is lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections. HIV was classified as a member of the genus Lentivirus, part of the Retroviridae family. Lentiviruses have many common morphologies and biological properties. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period. Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA viruses. Upon entry of the target cell, the viral RNA genome is converted to double-stranded DNA by a virally encoded reverse transcriptase that is present in the virus particle. This viral DNA is then integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded integrase so that the genome can be transcribed. Once the virus has infected the cell, two pathways are possible: either the virus becomes latent and the infected cell continues to function, or the virus becomes active and replicates, and a large number of virus particles are liberated that can then infect other cells. The p24 protein is detected in patient blood as early as 2 weeks after HIV infection, further reducing the window period necessary to accurately detect the HIV status of the patient.

Receptors across the cell membrane interact with some viral glycoproteins therefor enabling HSV to enter the host cell. The HSV enter through pores created by the binding of particular receptors across the cell membrane with the virus's coating envelope, following by a fusion of the HSV and the host cell. HSV enters the host cell through the same mechanism and stages as other viruses do. Initially, matching receptors across the virus's envelope and host cell's membrane interacts and bring the two together. During the transitional stage, begins fusion between the host cell and virus (hemifusion state). The closing stage happens when a steady pore was made; through these pores the virus's particles enter the cell.

Cytochrome C Oxidase Subunit Va (COX5A) is a member of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 5A family. COX (Cytochrome C Oxidase), which is the terminal component of the mitochondrial respiratory chain, catalyzes the electron transfer from reduced Cytochrome C to oxygen. The COX component is a heteromeric complex comprised of three catalytic subunits encoded by mitochondrial genes and multiple structural subunits encoded by nuclear genes. The mitochondrially-encoded subunits serve in electron transfer, and the nuclear-encoded subunits act in the regulation and assembly of the complex. COX5A is the heme A-containing chain of Cytochrome C Oxidase,which is the terminal oxidase in mitochondrial electron transport.

Enteropeptidase or enterokinase is an enzyme involved in human digestion. It is produced by cells in the duodenum wall, and is secreted from duodenum's glands, the crypts of Lieberk?hn, whenever ingested food enters the duodenum from the stomach. Enteropeptidase has the critical job of turning trypsinogen (a zymogen) to trypsin, indirectly activating a number of pancreatic digestive enzymes. Enteropeptidase is a serine protease enzyme (EC 3.4.21.9). Enteropeptidase is a part of the Chymotrypsin-clan of serine proteases, and is structurally similar to these proteins.

Influenza A virus subtype H5N1 is a subtype of the Influenza A virus. Subtype H5N1 is commonly known as avian influenza or bird flu. H5N1 may cause more than one influenza pandemicas it is expected to continue mutating in birds. The dominant strain of HPAI A (H5N1) evolved creating the Z genotype. It has also been called Asian lineage HPAI/A/H5N1 which is divided into 2 antigenic clades. "Clade 1 includes human and bird isolates from Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia and bird isolates from Laosand Malaysia. Clade 2 viruses were first identified in bird isolates from China, Indonesia, Japan, and South Korea before spreading westward to the Middle East, Europe, and Africa.

Hepatitis B is one of a few known non-retroviralviruses which employ reverse transcriptionas a part of its replication process. (HIV, a completely unrelated virus, also uses reverse transcription, but it is a retrovirus.) HBV invades the cell by binding to surface receptor and become internalized. The viral core particles then migrate to the hepatocyte nucleus and the partially double-stranded, relaxed circular genomes (RC-DNA) are repaired to form a covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA), which is the template for viral genomic and sub-genomic RNAs by cellular RNA polymerase II. Of these, the pregenomic RNA (pgRNA is selectively packaged into progeny capsids and is then reverse-transcribed into new RC-DNA. The core can either bud into the endoplasmic reticulum to be enveloped or exported from the cell or recycled back into the genome for conversion to cccDNA.

Chromosome 7 Open Reading Frame 49 (C7ORF49) is affiliated with the lncRNA class. C7ORF49 characterizes the hamster ortholog and suggests that it may modulate the ability of the proteasome to degrade retroviral cores upon cellular infection.

CD28 co-stimulation is necessary for CD4 positive T-cell proliferation & survival, interleukin-2 production, and T-helper type-2 development. Human post-thymic regulatory T cells require CD28 co-stimulation to expand and maintain potent suppressive function in vivo. Apoptosis plays a key role in the age-related decline of CD28 expression and in immunosenescence.

g-synuclein(Originally known as a breast cancer specific gene product, BCSG1) is an acidic neuronal protein of 127 amino acids. Gamma-Synuclein is a member of the Synuclein protein family, which is believed to be involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. High levels of Gamma-Synuclein have been found in advanced breast carcinomas suggesting a correlation between overexpression of SNCG and breast tumor development. Synuclein-Gamma is found mostly in the peripheral nervous system (in primary sensory neurons, sympathetic neurons, and motor neurons) and retina. SNCG is also identified in the brain, ovarian tumors, and in the olfactory epithelium. SNCG expression in breast tumors is a marker for tumor progression. A modification in the expression of gamma-synuclein has been detected in the retina of Alzheimer's patients.

Mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS) is vital for innate immune defense against viruses. MAVS is an intermediary protein essential in the virus-triggered IFN-beta signaling pathways. MAVS is involved in activation of transcription factors that regulate expression of IFN-beta and contributes to antiviral immunity.

HCV is a small 50nm, enveloped, single-stranded, positive sense RNA virus in the family Flaviviridae.
HCV has a high rate of replication with approximately one trillion particles produced each day in an infected individual. Due to lack of proofreading by the HCV RNA polymerase, the HCV has an exceptionally high mutation rate, a factor that may help it elude the host's immune response. Hepatitis C virus is classified into six genotypes (1-6) with several subtypes within each genotype. The preponderance and distribution of HCV genotypes varies globally. Genotype is clinically important in determining potential response to interferon-based therapy and the required duration of such therapy. Genotypes 1 and 4 are less responsive to interferon-based treatment than are the other genotypes (2, 3, 5 and 6).

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirusthat can lead to a condition in which the immune systembegins to fail, leading to opportunistic infections. HIV primarily infects vital cells in the humanimmune systemsuch as helper T cells(specifically CD4+ T cells), macrophagesand dendritic cells. HIV infection leads to low levels of CD4+ T cells through three main mechanisms: firstly, direct viral killing of infected cells; secondly, increased rates of apoptosisin infected cells; and thirdly, killing of infected CD4+ T cells by CD8 cytotoxic lymphocytesthat recognize infected cells. When CD4+ T cell numbers decline below a critical level, cell-mediated immunityis lost, and the body becomes progressively more susceptible to opportunistic infections. HIV was classified as a member of the genus Lentivirus, part of the family of Retroviridae. Lentiviruses have many common morphologies and biological properties. Many species are infected by lentiviruses, which are characteristically responsible for long-duration illnesses with a long incubation period. Lentiviruses are transmitted as single-stranded, positive-sense, enveloped RNA viruses. Upon entry of the target cell, the viral RNA genomeis converted to double-stranded DNAby a virally encoded reverse transcriptasethat is present in the virus particle. This viral DNA is then integrated into the cellular DNA by a virally encoded integraseso that the genome can be transcribed. Once the virus has infected the cell, two pathways are possible: either the virus becomes latentand the infected cell continues to function, or the virus becomes active and replicates, and a large number of virus particles are liberated that can then infect other cells.

CD4 is a cell-surface glycoprotein found on the mature helper T cells and immature thymocytes, as well as on monocytes and macrophages. (Some cytotoxic T cells have CD4 protein as well.) Normally, about 65% of T cells in the blood are CD4+ (have CD4 protein protruding from their membrane). A mature T cell with either have CD4 or CD8, but not both. During one stage of development T cells develop CD4 and CD8 receptors, but they eventually are differentiated in the thymus and become more specialized.

CD8 is a cell surface glycoprotein found on most cytotoxic T lymphocytes that mediates efficient cell-cell interactions within the immune system. CD8 acts as a co-receptor, and the T-cell receptor on the T lymphocyte recognize antigen displayed by an antigen presenting cell (APC) in the context of class I MHC molecules. The functional CD8 is either a homodimer composed of two alpha chains, or a heterodimer composed of one alpha and one beta chain. Both alpha and beta chains share significant homology to immunoglobulin variable light chains.
CD8 identifies cytotoxic/suppressor t-cells that interact with MHC class I bearing targets. CD8 is thought to play a role in the process of t-cell mediated killing. CD8 alpha chains bind to class-I MHC molecules alpha-3 domains.