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HCV is a small 50nm, enveloped, single-stranded, positive sense RNAvirus in the family Flaviviridae.
HCV has a high rate of replication with approximately one trillion particles produced each day in an infected individual. Due to lack of proofreading by the HCV RNA polymerase, the HCV has an exceptionally high mutation rate, a factor that may help it elude the host's immune response. Hepatitis C virus is classified into six genotypes(1-6) with several subtypes within each genotype. The preponderance and distribution of HCV genotypes varies globally. Genotype is clinically important in determining potential response to interferon-based therapy and the required duration of such therapy. Genotypes 1 and 4 are less responsive to interferon-based treatment than are the other genotypes (2, 3, 5 and 6).

Helicobacter pylori is a Gram negative bacteria which colonizes in the human stomach and stimulates gastric mucosal inflammations leading to acute gastritis-associated diseases among them are atrophic gastritis, peptic ulcer and gastric cancer.

H. pylori is found in half of the world’s population and is defined as a group I carcinogens. .

An important virulence factor of H. pylori is Cytotoxin-associated gene A (CagA) which is located at the end of an approximately 40-kb cluster of genes called cag pathoge¬nicity island (PAI).

Cag PAI encodes a type-IV secretion system and transfers CagA protein into the intracellular region of gastric epithelial cell.

This relocation induces cellular hyper proliferation, apoptosis and leading to failure of gastric epithelial cell in maintaining its normal cytoskeletal structure. Furthermore it increases the secretion of cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin (IL) 1, 6 and 8 by the epithelial cells.

The IL-8 leads to extreme inflammatory responses and also stimulates the production of oxygen free radicals that could cause DNA damage to adjacent cells and lead to genetic modifications of gastric epithelial cells which are carcinogenic.

SARS Coronavirus is an enveloped virus containing three outer structural proteins, namely the membrane (M), envelope (E), and spike (S) proteins. Spike (S)-glycoprotein of the virus interacts with a cellular receptor and mediates membrane fusion to allow viral entry into susceptible target cells. Accordingly, S-protein plays an important role in virus infection cycle and is the primary target of neutralizing antibodies.
It has recently been shown that SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) is caused by a human coronavirus. Human coronaviruses are the major cause of upper respiratory tract illness, such as the common cold, in humans. Coronaviruses are positive-stranded RNA viruses, featuring the largest viral RNA genomes known to date (27-31 kb). The first step in coronavirus infection is binding of the viral spike protein, a 139-kDa protein, to certain receptors on host cells. The spike protein is the main surface antigen of the coronavirus. The glycosilated spike protein (as well as the nucleocapsid protein) can be detected in infected cell culture supernatants with antisera from SARS patients.

Influenza-B virus is a genus in the virusfamily Orthomyxoviridae. The only species in this genus is called "Influenza B virus". Influenza B virus only infects humansand seals. This limited host range is apparently in contrast with those caused by the similar Influenza virus Aas both mutate by both genetic drift and reassortment. Influenza-B virus evolves slower than A viruses and faster than C viruses. Influenza-B virus mutates at a rate 2-3 times lower than type A. However, influenza B mutates enough that lasting immunity is not possible. The Influenza B virus capsidis enveloped while its virionconsists of a matrix protein + envelope + nucleoprotein complex + nucleocapsid, and a polymerasecomplex. Influenza B is sometimes spherical and sometimes filamentous. Its 500 or so surface projections are made of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase.
The Influenza B virus is 14648 nucleotideslong and consists of eight segments of linear negative-sense, single-stranded RNA. The multipartite genome is encapsidated, each segment in a separate nucleocapsid, and the nucleocapsids are surrounded by one envelope.

The life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii has two phases. The coccidia like takes place only in members of the Felidae family which makes these animals the parasite's primary host. The asexual part of the life cycle can take place in any warm-blooded animal, like other mammals(including felines) and birds. T. gondii constructing daughter scaffolds within the mother cell. In the intermediate hosts (including felines), the parasite invades cells, forming intracellular so-called parasitophorous vacuoles containing bradyzoites, the slowly replicating form of the parasit. Vacuoles form tissue cysts mainly within the muscles and brain. Since they are within cells, the host's immune system does not detect these cysts. Resistance to antibiotics varies, but the cysts are very difficult to eradicate entirely. Within these vacuoles T. gondii propagates by a series of binary fissions until the infected cell eventually bursts and tachyzoites are released. Tachyzoites are the motile, asexually reproducing form of the parasite. Unlike the bradyzoites, the free tachyzoites are usually efficiently cleared by the host's immune response, although some manage to infect cells and form bradyzoites, thus maintaining the infection.

Chlamydia is a common term for infection with any bacterium belonging to the phylum Chlamydiae. This term derives from the name of the bacterial genus Chlamydiain the family Chlamydiaceae, order Chlamydiales, class and phylum Chlamydiae. There are two genera in Chlamydiaceae: Chlamydia and Chlamydophila. The genus Chlamydia includes three species: C. trachomatis, C. muridarum, and C. suis.

Zika virus (ZIKV) belongs to the family Flaviviridae and the genus Flavivirus, it is transmitted by daytime-active Aedes mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus. The Zika virus is related to the dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. Much like the other flaviviruses, Zika virus is enveloped and icosahedral and has a nonsegmented, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. Zika fever is an infection, which often causes no symptoms or only mild ones, like a mild form of dengue fever, and it is treated by rest. As of February 2016, there has been mounting evidence that Zika fever in pregnant women can cause abnormal brain development in their fetuses by mother-to-child transmission, which may result in miscarriage or microcephaly, however it is not yet known whether Zika virus causes microcephaly. Furthermore, a connection has been established with neurologic conditions in infected adults, including Guillain–Barre syndrome. Since the 1950s, Zika virus has been detected only within a narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia. Between the years 2013 and 2014, Zika virus has spread eastward across the Pacific Ocean to French Polynesia, New Caledonia, the Cook Islands, and Easter Island, and in 2015 to Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean, and South America, where the Zika outbreak has reached pandemic levels.

A human infecting coronavirus (viral pneumonia) called 2019 novel coronavirus, 2019-nCoV was found in the fish market at the city of Wuhan, Hubei province of China on December 2019.

The 2019-nCoV shares an 87% identity to the 2 bat-derived severe acute respiratory syndrome 2018 SARS-CoV-2 located in Zhoushan of eastern China. 2019-nCoV has an analogous receptor-BD-structure to that of 2018 SARS-CoV, even though there is a.a. diversity so thus the 2019-nCoV might bind to ACE2 receptor protein (angiotensin-converting enzyme 2) in humans.

While bats are possibly the host of 2019-nCoV, researchers suspect that animal from the ocean sold at the seafood market was an intermediate host. RSCU analysis proposes that the 2019-nCoV is a recombinant within the viral spike glycoprotein between the bat coronavirus and an unknown coronavirus.

lysozyme G-like 2 and LYGH (LYG2), is a member of the glycosyl hydrolase 23 family. Lysozyme takes part in human innate immunity by causing bacterial cell lysis. LYG2 contains a SLT domain, a protein domain present in bacterial lytic transglycosylase (SLT) and in eukaryotic lysozymes (GEWL). SLT domain catalyzes the cleavage of the beta-1,4-glycosidic bond between N-acetylmuramic acid (MurNAc) and N-acetyglucosamine (GlcNAc).

Treponema pallidum is a gram-negative spirochaete bacterium and is considered to be metabolically crippled. There are at least four known subspecies: T. pallidum pallidum, T. pallidum pertenue, T. pallidum carateum and T. pallidum endemicum. The helical structure of T. pallidum pallidum allows it to move in a corkscrew motion through viscous mediums such as mucus. Treponema pallidum sub sp. pallidum has one of the smallest bacterial genomes at 1.14 million base pairs (Mb) and has limited metabolic capabilities, reflecting its adaptation through genome reduction to the rich environment of mammalian tissue.

Zika virus (ZIKV) belongs to the family Flaviviridae and the genus Flavivirus, it is transmitted by daytime-active Aedes mosquitoes, such as A. aegypti and A. albopictus. The Zika virus is related to the dengue, yellow fever, Japanese encephalitis, and West Nile viruses. Much like the other flaviviruses, Zika virus is enveloped and icosahedral and has a nonsegmented, single-stranded, positive-sense RNA genome. Zika fever is an infection, which often causes no symptoms or only mild ones, like a mild form of dengue fever, and it is treated by rest. As of February 2016, there has been mounting evidence that Zika fever in pregnant women can cause abnormal brain development in their fetuses by mother-to-child transmission, which may result in miscarriage or microcephaly, however it is not yet known whether Zika virus causes microcephaly. Furthermore, a connection has been established with neurologic conditions in infected adults, including Guillain–Barre syndrome.

Borrelia belongs to a genus of bacteria of the spirochete phylum. Borrelia causes borreliosis, which is a zoonotic, vector-borne disease transmitted mainly by ticks and some by lice, depending on the species. Of the 36 known species of Borrelia, 12 are distinguished to cause Lyme disease or borreliosis and are transmitted by ticks. The main Borrelia species causing Lyme disease are Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia afzelii, and Borrelia garinii. The Borrelia genus members have a linear chromosome which is about 900 kbp in length as well as an excess of both linear and circular plasmids in the 5-220 kbp size range. The plasmids are atypical, as compared to most bacterial plasmids, since they contain many paralogous sequences, a large number of pseudogenes and, in some cases, essential genes. Moreover, a number of the plasmids have features suggesting that they are prophages.

Borrelia belongs to a genus of bacteria of the spirochete phylum. Borrelia causes borreliosis, which is a zoonotic, vector-borne disease transmitted mainly by ticks and some by lice, depending on the species. Of the 36 known species of Borrelia, 12 are distinguished to cause Lyme disease or borreliosis and are transmitted by ticks. The main Borrelia species causing Lyme disease are Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia afzelii, and Borrelia garinii. The Borrelia genus members have a linear chromosome which is about 900 kbp in length as well as an excess of both linear and circular plasmids in the 5-220 kbp size range. The plasmids are atypical, as compared to most bacterial plasmids, since they contain many paralogous sequences, a large number of pseudogenes and, in some cases, essential genes. Moreover, a number of the plasmids have features suggesting that they are prophages.

Interleukin-1 ra is a member of the interleukin 1 cytokine family. This protein inhibits the activities of interleukin 1, alpha (IL1A) and interleukin 1, beta (IL1B), and modulates a variety of interleukin 1 related immune and inflammatory responses. This gene and five other closely related cytokine genes form a gene cluster spanning approximately 400 kb on chromosome 2. A polymorphism of this gene is reported to be associated with increased risk of osteoporotic fractures and gastric cancer. Four alternatively spliced transcript variants encoding distinct isoforms have been reported.

H3N2 is a subtype of the influenza A virus. Its name derives from the forms of the two kinds of proteinson the surface of its coat, hemagglutinin(H) and neuraminidase(N). H3N2 exchanges genes for internal proteins with other influenza subtypes. H3N2 has tended to dominate in prevalence over H1N1, H1N2, and influenza B. H3N2 strain descended from H2N2by antigenic shift, in which genes from multiple subtypes re-assorted to form a new virus. Both the H2N2and H3N2 strains contained genesfrom avian influenzaviruses.

Histidine triad nucleotide-binding protein 2 (HINT2) belongs to the triad proteins, which are nucleotide hydrolases and transferases that act on the alpha-phosphate of ribonucleotides. Hydrolase is most likely involved in steroid biosynthesis, furthermore it might play a role in apoptosis. HINT2 shows high expression in liver and pancreas. Expression is significantly down-regulated in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) patients.

High mobility group protein HMG-I/HMG-Y (HMGA1) belongs to the non-histone chromosomal high mobility group protein (HMG) family. HMGA1 is composed of a highly conserved AT-hook DNA-binding domain which mediates binding to AT-rich sequences in the minor groove of chromosomal DNA. HMGA1 functions as an architectural chromatin-binding transcription factor modifying the conformation of DNA by modulating nuclear protein-DNA complexes. Furthermore, HMGA1 is involved in numerous cellular processes including growth regulation, viral induction of beta-IFN gene and regulation of inducible gene transcription.

Interferon Alpha And Beta Receptor, also known IFNAR1, belongs to the class II cytokine receptor family. IFNAR1 protein forms one of the two chains of a receptor for interferons alpha as well as beta. IFNAR1 binds and activates the receptor which stimulates Janus protein kinases, which in turn phosphorylate some proteins, including STAT1 & STAT2. Furthermore, IFNAR1 also functions as an antiviral factor.

Borrelia belongs to a genus of bacteria of the spirochete phylum. Borrelia causes borreliosis, which is a zoonotic, vector-borne disease transmitted mainly by ticks and some by lice, depending on the species. Of the 36 known species of Borrelia, 12 are distinguished to cause Lyme disease or borreliosis and are transmitted by ticks. The main Borrelia species causing Lyme disease are Borrelia burgdorferi, Borrelia afzelii, and Borrelia garinii. The Borrelia genus members have a linear chromosome which is about 900 kbp in length as well as an excess of both linear and circular plasmids in the 5-220 kbp size range. The plasmids are atypical, as compared to most bacterial plasmids, since they contain many paralogous sequences, a large number of pseudogenes and, in some cases, essential genes. Moreover, a number of the plasmids have features suggesting that they are prophages.

Recoverin is a member of the recoverin family of neuronal calcium sensors. Recoverin is a heterogeneously acylated calcium-binding and intracellular signal transduction 23kDa protein in the photoreceptor cells of retina. Recoverin contains four EF-hands, of which two bind Ca. Ca-induced extrusion of the acyl group from a hydrophobic cleft in the protein drives the translocation of recoverin from solution to the disc membrane. Recoverin may prolong the termination of the phototransduction cascade in the retina by blocking the phosphorylation of photo-activated rhodopsin. Recoverin plays a key role in the inhibition of rhodopsin kinase, a molecule that regulates the phosphorylation of rhodopsin. This in due course controls the ability of the eye to adapt to, and recover from, exposure to the presence of light. Recoverin is a detectable serologic protein that is expressed in patients with cancer-associated retinopathy, a paraneoplastic syndrome.

CXADR is a component of the epithelial apical junction complex which operates as an homophilic cell adhesion molecule and is crucial for tight junction integrity. CXADR also takes part in transepithelial relocation of leukocytes through adhesive interactions with AMICA1/JAML a transmembrane protein of the plasma membrane of leukocytes. A number of transcript variants encoding different isoforms were identified for this gene. Pseudogenes of this gene were located on chromosomes 15, 18, and 21.

IFN-gamma produced by lymphocytes activated by specific antigens or mitogens.
IFN-gamma, in addition to having antiviral activity, has important immunoregulatory functions, it is a potent activator of macrophages, and has antiproliferative effects on transformed cells and it can potentiate the antiviral and antitumor effects of the type I interferons.